Monday, April 21, 2008

Internal Combustion Engine

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction creates gases at high temperature and pressure which are permitted to expand. The defining feature of an internal combustion engine is that useful work is performed by the expanding hot gases acting directly to cause movement of solid parts of the engine, by acting on pistons, rotors, or even by pressing on and moving the entire engine itself.

This contrasts with external combustion engines, such as steam engines and Steirling enginers, which use an external combustion chamber to heat a separate working fluid, which then in turn does work, for example by moving a piston or a turbine.

The term Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is almost always used to refer specifically to reciprocating piston engines, Wankel Engines and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. However, continuous combustion engines, such as jet engines, most rockets and many gas turbines are also internal combustion engines.

Applications

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion in automobiles, equipment, and other portable machinery. In mobile equipment, internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power-to-weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in transport in almost all automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, boats, and in a wide variety of aircraft and locomotive, generally using petroleum (called All-Petroleum Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles or APICEVs). Where very high power is required, such as jet aircraft, helicopters and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of turbines.

Operation

All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic chemical

process of combustion : the reaction of a fuel, typically with the oxygen from the air, although other oxidizers such as nitrous oxide may be employed.

The most common modern fuels are made up of hydrocarbons and are deri

ved mostly from petroleum. These include the fuels known as dieselfuel, gasoline and petroleum gas, and the rarer use of propane gas. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can ru

n on natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases without major modifications except for the fuel delivery components. Liquid and gaseous biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that yield triglycerides such as soybean oil), can also be used. Some can also run on hydrogen gas.

All internal combustion engines must achieve ignition in their cylinders to create combustion. Typically engines use either a spark ignition (SI) method or a compresion ignition (CI) system. In the past, other methods using hot tubes or flames have been used.

Monday, March 10, 2008

Heat Transfer

Basics of Heat Transfer
In the simplest of terms, the discipline of heat transfer is concerned with only two things: temperature, and the flow of heat. Temperature represents the amount of thermal energy available, whereas heat flow represents the movement of thermal energy from place to place. On a microscopic scale, thermal energy is related to the kinetic energy of molecules. The greater a material's temperature, the greater the thermal agitation of its constituent molecules (manifested both in linear motion and vibrational modes). It is natural for regions containing greater molecular kinetic energy to pass this energy to regions with less kinetic energy. Several material properties serve to modulate the heat tranfered between two regions at differing temperatures. Examples include thermal conductivities, specific heats, material densities, fluid velocities, fluid viscosities, surface emissivities, and more. Taken together, these properties serve to make the solution of many heat transfer problems an involved process.

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction :

Regions with greater molecular kinetic energy will pass their thermal energy to regions with less molecular energy through direct molecular collisions, a process known as conduction. In metals, a significant portion of the transported thermal energy is also carried by conduction-band electrons.

Convection :

When heat conducts into a static fluid it leads to a local volumetric expansion. As a result of gravity-induced pressure gradients, the expanded fluid parcel becomes buoyant and displaces, thereby transporting heat by fluid motion (i.e. convection) in addition to conduction. Such heat-induced fluid motion in initially static fluids is known as free convection.

For cases where the fluid is already in motion, heat conducted into the fluid will be transported away chiefly by fluid convection. These cases, known as forced convection, require a pressure gradient to drive the fluid motion, as opposed to a gravity gradient to induce motion through buoyancy. Radiation :

All materials radiate thermal energy in amounts determined by their temperature, where the energy is carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. When temperatures are uniform, the radiative flux between objects is in equilibrium and no net thermal energy is exchanged. The balance is upset when temperatures are not uniform, and thermal energy is transported from surfaces of higher to surfaces of lower temperature.

Tuesday, February 26, 2008

Combustion Engine

Bilangan Oktan
Bilangan oktan adalah angka yang menunjukkan seberapa besar tekanan yang bisa diberikan sebelum bensin terbakar secara spontan. Di dalam mesin, campuran udara dan bensin (dalam bentuk gas) ditekan oleh piston sampai dengan volume yang sangat kecil dan kemudian dibakar oleh percikan api yang dihasilkan busi. Karena besarnya tekanan ini, campuran udara dan bensin juga bisa terbakar secara spontan sebelum percikan api dari busi keluar. Jika campuran gas ini terbakar karena tekanan yang tinggi (dan bukan karena percikan api dari busi), maka akan terjadi knocking atau ketukan di dalam mesin. Knocking ini akan menyebabkan mesin cepat rusak, sehingga sebisa mungkin harus kita hindari.
Nama oktan berasal dari oktana (C8), karena dari seluruh molekul penyusun bensin, oktana yang memiliki sifat kompresi paling bagus. Oktana dapat dikompres sampai volume kecil tanpa mengalami pembakaran spontan, tidak seperti yang terjadi pada heptana, misalnya, yang dapat terbakar spontan meskipun baru ditekan sedikit.
Bensin dengan bilangan oktan 87, berarti bensin tersebut terdiri dari 87% oktana dan 13% heptana (atau campuran molekul lainnya). Bensin ini akan terbakar secara spontan pada angka tingkat kompresi tertentu yang diberikan, sehingga hanya diperuntukkan untuk mesin kendaraan yang memiliki ratio kompresi yang tidak melebihi angka tersebut. Umumnya skala oktan di dunia adalah Research Octane Number (RON). RON ditentukan dengan mengisi bahan bakar ke dalam mesin uji dengan rasio kompresi variabel dengan kondisi yang teratur.
Beberapa angka oktan untuk bahan bakar: 87 → Bensin standar di Amerika Serikat 88 → Bensin tanpa timbal Premium-TT 91 → Bensin standar di Eropa 94 → Premix-TT 95 → Super-TT
Angka oktan bisa ditingkatkan dengan menambahkan zat aditif bensin. Menambahkan tetraethyl lead (TEL, Pb(C2H5)4) pada bensin akan meningkatkan bilangan oktan bensin tersebut, sehingga bensin "murah" dapat digunakan dan aman untuk mesin dengan menambahkan timbal ini. Untuk mengubah Pb dari bentuk padat menjadi gas pada bensin yang mengandung TEL dibutuhkan etilen bromida (C2H5Br). Celakanya, lapisan tipis timbal terbentuk pada atmosfer dan membahayakan makhluk hidup, termasuk manusia. Di negara-negara maju, timbal sudah dilarang untuk dipakai sebagai bahan campuran bensin.
Zat tambahan lainnya yang sering dicampurkan ke dalam bensin adalah MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether, C5H11O), yang berasal dan dibuat dari etanol. MTBE murni berbilangan setara oktan 118. Selain dapat meningkatkan bilangan oktan, MTBE juga dapat menambahkan oksigen pada campuran gas di dalam mesin, sehingga akan mengurangi pembakaran tidak sempurna bensin yang menghasilkan gas CO. Belakangan diketahui bahwa MTBE ini juga berbahaya bagi lingkungan karena mempunyai sifat karsinogenik dan mudah bercampur dengan air, sehingga jika terjadi kebocoran pada tempat-tempat penampungan bensin (misalnya di pompa bensin) MTBE masuk ke air tanah bisa mencemari sumur dan sumber-sumber air minum lainnya.
Etanol yang berbilangan oktan 123 juga digunakan sebagai campuran. Etanol lebih unggul dari TEL dan MTBE karena tidak mencemari udara dengan timbal. Selain itu, etanol mudah diperoleh dari fermentasi tumbuh-tumbuhan sehingga bahan baku untuk pembuatannya cukup melimpah. Etanol semakin sering dipergunakan sebagai komponen bahan bakar setelah harga minyak bumi semakin meningkat.

Saturday, February 23, 2008

Bilangan Reynolds

Dalam mekanika fluida, bilangan Reynolds adalah rasio antara gaya inersia (vsρ) terhadap gaya viskos (μ/L) yang mengkuantifikasikan hubungan kedua gaya tersebut dengan suatu kondisi aliran tertentu. Bilangan ini digunakan untuk mengidentikasikan jenis aliran yang berbeda, misalnya laminar dan turbulen. Namanya diambil dari Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) yang mengusulkannya pada tahun 1883. Bilangan Reynold merupakan salah satu bilangan tak berdimensi yang paling penting dalam mekanika fluida dan digunakan, seperti halnya dengan bilangan tak berdimensi lain, untuk memberikan kriteria untuk menentukan dynamic similitude. Jika dua pola aliran yang mirip secara geometris, mungkin pada fluida yang berbeda dan laju alir yang berbeda pula, memiliki nilai bilangan tak berdimensi yang relevan, keduanya disebut memiliki kemiripan dinamis.
Rumusan Rumus bilangan Reynolds umumnya diberikan sebagai berikut:

dengan:
vs - kecepatan fluida, L - panjang karakteristik, μ - viskositas absolut fluida dinamis, ν - viskositas kinematik fluida: ν = μ / ρ, ρ - kerapatan (densitas) fluida. Misalnya pada aliran dalam pipa, panjang karakteristik adalah diameter pipa, jika penampang pipa bulat, atau diameter hidraulik, untuk penampang tak bulat.
Pustaka
1. Fouz, Infaz (2001), Fluid Mechanics, Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Oxford
2. Hughes, Roger (1997), Civil Engineering Hydraulics, Civil and Environmental Dept., University of Melbourne
3. Jermy, M. (2005), Fluid Mechanics A Course Reader, hlm.d5.10: Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Canterbury
4. Rott, N. (1990), "Note on the history of the Reynolds number", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 22: hlm. 1–11
5. Zagarola, M.V. & A.J. Smits (1996), "Experiments in High Reynolds Number Turbulent Pipe Flow", AIAApaper #96-0654, 34th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting, Reno, Nevada, January 15 - 18, 1996